Discourse Markers

Discourse markers are words and expressions used to show how discourse is constructed.

We use different discourse markers in speaking and writing. In speaking, the following discourse markers are very common:

- anyway, like, right, you know, fine, now, so, I mean, good, oh, well, as I say, great, okay, mind you, for a start.

Discourse markers to order or sequence what we say:

- and, in general, second, to sum up, and then, in the end, secondly, what’s more, first (of all), last of all, so, well, firstly, next, lastly, for a start, on top of that, third(ly).

Discourse markers as responses:

- absolutely, fine, okay, wow, (all) right, good, quite (more formal), yeah, certainly, great, really, yes, definitely, I see, sure, exactly, no, wonderful.

Discourse markers showing attitude:

- actually, frankly, I think, (I’m) sorry, admittedly, hopefully, literally, surprisingly, amazingly, honestly, naturally, thankfully, basically, ideally, no doubt, to be honest, certainly, if you ask me, obviously, to tell you the truth, clearly, I’m afraid, of course, understandably, confidentially, I must admit, predictably, undoubtedly, definitely, I must say, really, unfortunately, essentially, in fact, sadly, fortunately,indeed, seriously.

Discourse markers: sounding less direct:

- apparently, kind of, perhaps, roughly, arguably, like, presumably, sort of/ kind of, I think, maybe, probably, surely,  just.

Corpus Frequent Top 500 Words Cambridge

https://www.google.com.mx/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=5gaTVO_aMsSu8weo6oHADQ#q=corpus+frequency+the+top+500+spoken+words

Wh question words

Dependent and Independent Clauses

Independent and Dependent Clauses

Independent and dependent clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A single independent clause can be a sentence, by itself. However, dependent clauses are used to make sentences more complete and more interesting. Using conjunctions and proper punctuation, dependent and independent clauses can be joined together to create interesting and complex compound sentences that are fun and engaging to read.

Independent Clause Defined

An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own, by itself. It does not need to be joined to any other clauses, because it contains all the information necessary to be a complete sentences. 

Independent clauses have three components:

1. They have a subject - they tell the reader what the sentence is about.
2. They have an action or predicate - they tell the reader what the subject is doing.
3. They express a complete thought - something happened or was said.

An independent clause can be as simple as a subject and a verb:

• Jim reads.

Jim is the subject. Reads is the action or verb. A complete thought was expressed - something was said, and the reader now knows that Jim likes to read.

Independent clauses can also be joined to other independent clauses, if the independent clauses are related. However, they MUST be joined using the proper punctuation.

• Jim read a book; he really enjoyed the book.

The first clause is an independent clause. Jim is the subject, read is the action, book is the object.

The second clause is an independent clause. He is the subject, enjoyed is the action and the book is the object.

The independent clauses are related, so they can be joined to create a complex sentence. They are correctly joined by a semicolon. 

• Jim read a book, he really enjoyed the book.

Again, we have two independent clauses, but the independent clauses are not joined properly. When two independent clauses are joined only be a comma, it is a grammatical error called a comma splice.

Independent clauses can be quite complex, but the important thing to remember is that they stand on their own and make sense alone.

For more examples of independent clauses, check out Examples of Independent Clauses.

Dependent Clause Defined

A dependent clause is a clause that does not express a complete thought.

A clause can be dependent because of the presence of a:

• Marker Word (Before, after, because, since, in order to, although, though, whenever, wherever, whether, while, even though, even if)
• Conjunction (And, or, nor, but, yet)

Dependent clauses MUST be joined to another clause, in order to avoid creating a sentence fragment.

• Because I forgot my homework.

This is a sentence fragment. We have a "because" but not a "why" or anything accompanying and following what happened "because" they forgot.

• Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.

Here, the error is corrected. "I got sent home" is an independent clause. "I" is the subject, "got" is the verb, "sent home" is the object. A complete thought is expressed.

Dependent clauses can become more complex if we add subjects, objects, and modifying phrases:

• Jim, who likes books, read a book.

Jim is the subject.

"Who likes to read" is a dependent clause that modifies Jim. It contains "likes" which is a verb.

Read is a verb.

A book is the object.

Like independent clauses, a dependent clause can also be complex. The important thing to remember is that the dependent clause does not stand on its own as a complete thought.

Adverb Clauses

Adverb clauses are groups of words that function as an adverb. To understand this, you need to know about clauses and the functions of adverbs.

Types of Clauses

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb (predicate). This differs from a phrase, which does not have a subject and a verb, like “to the park.” Clauses can be independent or dependent.

• Independent clauses are called sentences as they can stand alone and express a complete thought.

• Dependent clauses, or subordinate clauses, are subordinate to something else, usually an independent clause, and depend on it for meaning. Here are some examples with the dependent clause underlined:

• Because he has a college degree, he was given a great job.
• When the storm started, she was at the store.
• Bob wore the coat that I gave him.

You can see that each underlined clause cannot stand on its own, but needs a clause to help it make sense or to help it complete a thought.  

What Is an Adverb Clause?

Adverb clauses are clauses that function as adverbs. Since they are dependent clauses, they must have a subordinating conjunction to connect them to the other clause.

Subordinating conjunctions can be arranged according to the purpose of the clause they begin. Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:

• Time: after, when, until, soon, before, once, while, as soon as, whenever, by the time
• Condition: if, whether or not, provided, in case, unless, even if, in the event
• Cause and effect: because, as, since, so, in order that, now that, inasmuch as
• Contrast: though, although, while, whereas, even though 

Most of the time, an adverb clause will be separated from the other clause with a comma. Here are a few examples of sentences with and without commas: 

• Whether you like it or not, you have to go. (The adverb clause “Whether you like it or not” puts a condition on the action.) 
• She enjoyed the party more than he did. (The adverb clause 'than he did' modifies the adverb “more”.)  

Functions of Adverbs

Since adverb clauses function as adverbs, let’s look at the functions of adverbs.

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
• They tell why, when, where, how, how much, and how often an action occurs.
• They can begin a sentence that is a question, and give more information.

Here are some examples according to what the adverb is modifying:

• Verbs: We eat pizza weekly. She watched the wild animal carefully.
• Adjectives: That is a very nice person. The dog is extremely hyperactive.
• Adverbs: She sings quite beautifully. My dog is almost always starving.

Examples of Adverb Clauses

Adverb clauses can modify by telling the place, time, cause, and purpose of an action. They can also show concession and condition. Basically they answer the questions: Where?, when?, why?, and under what conditions? Here are some examples with the adverb clause underlined:

• Place: Wherever there is music, people will often dance.  Let’s go to the room where they asked us to wait.     
• Time: After the chores are done, we will eat ice cream. When the clock strikes midnight, she has to leave.
• Cause: She passed the course because she worked hard. Since he has long hair, he wears a ponytail.
• Purpose: So that he would not ruin the carpet, he took off his shoes.  He ate vegetables in order to stay healthy.
• Concession: Even though you are 13, you can’t go to that movie. Although you gave it your best, you did not win the match.
• Condition: If you save some money, you can buy a new game. Unless you hurry, you will be late for school. Adver

Relative Clauses

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

How to Form Relative Clauses 

Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say:

A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?

That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing  – you want to know who the girl is.

Do you know the girl …

As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information  – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is:

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Relative Pronouns 

relative pronoun	use	example
who	subject or object pronoun for people	I told you about the woman who lives next door.
which	subject or object pronoun for animals and things	Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?
which	referring to a whole sentence	He couldn’t read which surprised me.
whose	possession for people animals and things	Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?
whom	object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)	I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.
that	subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)	I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? 

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:

If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used.

the apple which is lying on the table

If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.

the apple (which) George lay on the table

Relative Adverbs 

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.

This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.

relative adverb	meaning	use	example
when	in/on which	refers to a time expression	the day when we met him
where	in/at which	refers to a place	the place where we met him
why	for which	refers to a reason	the reason why we met him

Defining Relative Clauses 

Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.

A seaman is someone who works on a ship.

Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)

The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses 

Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean.

Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?

Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.

Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.

Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.

How to Shorten Relative Clauses? 

Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.

I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.

Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?c

Used To

FORM

[used to + VERB]

Example:

• I used to go to the beach every day.

It is better not to use "used to" in questions or negative forms; however, this is sometimes done in informal spoken English. It is better to ask questions and create negative sentences using Simple Past.

USE 1 Habit in the Past

"Used to" expresses the idea that something was an old habit that stopped in the past. It indicates that something was often repeated in the past, but it is not usually done now.

Examples:

• Jerry used to study English.
• Sam and Mary used to go to Mexico in the summer.
• I used to start work at 9 o'clock.
• Christine used to eat meat, but now she is a vegetarian.

USE 2 Past Facts and Generalizations

"Used to" can also be used to talk about past facts or generalizations which are no longer true.

Examples:

• I used to live in Paris.
• Sarah used to be fat, but now she is thin.
• George used to be the best student in class, but now Lena is the best.
• Oranges used to cost very little in Florida, but now they are quite expensive.

"Used to" vs. Simple Past

Both Simple Past and "Used to" can be used to describe past habits, past facts and past generalizations; however, "used to" is preferred when emphasizing these forms of past repetition in positive sentences. On the other hand, when asking questions or making negative sentences, Simple Past is preferred.

Examples:

• You used to play the piano.
• Did you play the piano when you were young?
• You did not play the piano when you were young.

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Jerry used to pay the bills. Active
• The bills used to be paid by Jerry. Passive

More About Active / Passive Forms

EXERCISES AND RELATED TOPICS

• Past Repetition Simple Past, "Used to" and "Would Always."

Active and Passive Voice Structures

Active / Passive Verb Forms

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak English.

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

Examples:

Active / Passive Overview

	Active	Passive
Simple Present	Once a week, Tom cleans the house.	Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.
Present Continuous	Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.	Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.
Simple Past	Sam repaired the car.	The car was repaired by Sam.
Past Continuous	The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.	The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.
Present Perfect	Many tourists have visited that castle.	That castle has been visited by many tourists.
Present Perfect Continuous	Recently, John has been doing the work.	Recently, the work has been being done by John.
Past Perfect	George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.	Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.
Past Perfect Continuous	Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.	The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.
Simple Future will	Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.	The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.
Simple Future be going to	Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.	A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.
Future Continuous will	At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.	At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.
Future Continuous be going to	At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.	At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.
Future Perfect will	They will have completed the project before the deadline.	The project will have been completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect be going to	They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.	The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect Continuous will	The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.	The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
Future Perfect Continuous be going to	The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.	The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
Used to	Jerry used to pay the bills.	The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
Would Always	My mother would always make the pies.	The pies would always be made by my mother.
Future in the Past Would	I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.	I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.
Future in the Past Was Going to	I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.	I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.

Use of Passive Voice

Use of Passive

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive 

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Simple Present	Active:	Rita	writes	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is written	by Rita.
Simple Past	Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was written	by Rita.
Present Perfect	Active:	Rita	has written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	has been written	by Rita.
Future I	Active:	Rita	will write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will be written	by Rita.
Hilfsverben	Active:	Rita	can write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	can be written	by Rita.

Examples of Passive 

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Present Progressive	Active:	Rita	is writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is being written	by Rita.
Past Progressive	Active:	Rita	was writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was being written	by Rita.
Past Perfect	Active:	Rita	had written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	had been written	by Rita.
Future II	Active:	Rita	will have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will have been written	by Rita.
Conditional I	Active:	Rita	would write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would be written	by Rita.
Conditional II	Active:	Rita	would have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would have been written	by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects 

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

	Subject	Verb	Object 1	Object 2
Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter	to me.
Passive:	A letter	was written	to me	by Rita.
Passive:	I	was written	a letter	by Rita.

.

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is calledImpersonal Passive.

Example: he says – it is said

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.